State the age at which the average US citizen produces the most CO₂ emissions.

State the age range in which the most rapid increase in CO₂ emissions occurs.

Suggest two health hazards that may result from climate change.

Health hazard 1:

Health hazard 2:

Explain how two methods of geo-engineering could mitigate climate change.

Method 1:

Method 2:

65 (accept 64–66)

13–23 (accept answers between 12–14 and 22–24)

In each case, award [1] for identification of a valid health hazard, with a further [1] for development.

Possibilities include:

• Health hazards associated with extreme heat – cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
• Health hazards associated with drought – gastroenteritis, salmonella, typhoid.
• Health hazards associated with floods – cholera, malaria, drowning.
• Health hazards associated with extreme weather such as hurricanes – injury, asphyxiation in a landslide
• Health hazards associated with changing (distribution of) climates – northward movement of tropical insects, increase in disease carrying organisms - mosquitoes.
• Health hazards that result from changes in agricultural production – undernourishment, leading to diseases such as marasmus and diarrhea.
• Mental health issues that are linked to climate change - anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder linked to extreme weather-related natural disasters, decline in farm outputs can lead to stress
• Melting permafrost may release viruses stored in the soil – anthrax in Siberia in 2016.

For example: Climate change is expected to cause an expansion of the geographic range and seasonality of ticks [1], which has led to an increase in Lyme disease and other tick-borne diseases in parts of North America and Europe [1].

In each case, award [1] for identification of a valid method of the deliberate large-scale manipulation of an environmental process that affects the Earth's climate, with a further [1] for explanation.

Possibilities include:

• Large-scale afforestation – removes atmospheric CO₂.
• Carbon dioxide removal by artificial trees.
• Ocean fertilization – adding nutrients to oceans to encourage growth of CO₂-eating plankton.
• Reflective aerosols - inject particles of Sulphur into the atmosphere – act as aerosols and reflect sunlight.
• Space mirrors – these reflect solar radiation so that it does not reach the Earth’s surface.
• Cloud seeding
• Albedo modification - increase number of reflective surfaces such as roads, roofs – enhances albedo. High albedo crops, micro-bubbling – releasing air bubbles into ocean surface to increase albedo, vertical gardens/green buildings at scale above local

For example: CO₂ removal from the atmosphere by carbon filtering [1]. Captured carbon is then stored in rocks [1].

Analysis of the graph was usually thorough and many candidates scored well on this question.

Analysis of the graph was usually thorough and many candidates scored well on this question.

Popular responses to this question encompassed health hazards relating to extreme heat, changing climatic range and drought. Where valid climate change characteristics were identified, candidates were normally able to develop an associated health hazard and many scored well. However, a number of responses were confused and lacked clarity. It is important that candidates give attention to examination technique in their preparation for this assessment to ensure they make the best use of time. The best answers to this question gave a brief comment on the identified element of climate change with a clear and concise development of the resultant health hazard. Some candidates wanted to give detail on the causes of the aspect of climate change and this was not required by the question. Other responses concentrated on atmospheric pollution rather than climate change.

Many candidates were confident with the knowledge required to answer this question and provided a range of valid responses across a spectrum of technologies. Reference was made most frequently to carbon capture, ocean fertilization and sunlight reflection with clear explanation of how the techniques could mitigate climate change for crop production. Although there were many good answers, a number of issues arose, the main one being a lack of knowledge of what constitutes geo-engineering. A significant number of answers commented on energy conservation and alternative energy sources, which are obviously related but not geo-engineering. In addition, a number referred to small-scale projects within cities that linked mainly to atmospheric sustainability such as green roofs.

“The growth of the global middle class will inevitably accelerate climate change.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 2 section C markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Reponses could show some understanding of the main anthropogenic causes of climate change. The enhanced greenhouse effect should be explored, with a focus on an increase in GHGs is the atmosphere – such as CO₂, CH₄. Sources of these emissions vary over time and space but there is a definite link between a region’s/individual’s emissions and their level of socio-economic development. Per capita global emissions are much higher in high-income regions, as they are linked to development, trade and globalization.
• As low- to middle-income countries develop over time, there is an increase in the standard of living of many millions of their inhabitants. This emerging middle class, given the present model of development, will increase their ecological footprint as consumption and waste generation increases. For example, as disposable income has increased in China over the past 30 years, diets have changed to include more meat. Animal agriculture is a major contributor of greenhouse gasses like methane, and many carbon sinks – such as rainforests – are being cleared to accommodate more grazing land or land for growing cattle feed.
• As this global middle class grows, so does their consumption of fossil fuels, as there is an increase in electricity consumption and car ownership and a demand for foreign goods, which increases global trade – all activities which rely on the use of traditional fossil fuels in many nations.
• It could be noted that the per capita emissions of individuals in high-income nations are still much higher and have been so for a long time.
• Alternatively, responses may disagree with the statement and argue that, as a new middle class grows, there are opportunities to learn from the mistakes of the past and to develop using greener technologies, thus keeping ecological footprints to more sustainable levels than those of the “Economic North”.
• Responses could argue that it is already too late and that we have reached a tipping point where feedback loops are already at play, causing irreversible climate change.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) that focuses on the relative role of the growing middle class on speeding up climate change. Responses may address the spatial aspect of middle-class growth and the varying impacts upon climate change.

For 5–6 marks
Expect a weakly evidenced outlining of some links between rising wealth and climate change / carbon emissions.

For 7–8 marks
Expect a well-structured account which includes:

• either a well-evidenced synthesis that links together several themes from the Guide and acknowledges both sides of the argument
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks
Expect both traits.

Many responses contained a competent level of knowledge concerning the growth of the global middle class although some dwelled too much on the causes of growth rather than the consequences required by the question. The better answers examined how the growth of the global middle class impacted on consumption, distinguishing between overall increase and the expanding demand for specifics such as Western diets, cars and electronic consumer goods. This was then linked to the utilization of resources and the production of greenhouse gases which was then associated with accelerated climate change. There were some who linked the expansion of the global middle class with urban growth and developed the view that urban living increased the production of greenhouse gases via transport and construction. A significant number addressed the 'to what extent' element although their view was fairly narrow as they looked only at the ability of the new middle class to use new attitudes and technologies to address climate change. Fewer responses commented on the geographical distribution of the growth of the new middle class or their rate of growth in different countries or regions. Candidates were well prepared in their use of exemplar materials with a number using case studies as a structural approach to their answers. Overall, the responses were stronger in knowledge and understanding than application with room to enhance evaluation.

Describe the trend in flood events.

Suggest two ways in which increased global temperatures can cause changes in sea levels.

Way 1:

Way 2: 

Explain two corporate strategies used to address global climate change. 

Strategy 1:

Strategy 2: 

Award [1] for identifying the overall trend of increase over time and [1] for identifying the fluctuation/periods of decline.

Quantification required for full marks.

In each case award [1] for identification of a valid way and [1] for further development of how it has led to changing sea levels.

For example: Glacial melt of continental ice [1]. Increased volume of ocean water resulting is sea level rise [1].

Other possibilities include:

• thermal expansion
• inland sea level falls as a result of water courses drying up and increased evaporation
• isostatic readjustment after glacial melting lifts weight of ice on the land. Land then rises which leads to sea level drop.

In each case award [1] for identification of a valid corporate strategy and [1] for further explanatory development/exemplification related to how it addresses global climate change.

For example: The Lego company has established emission targets for manufacturing and distribution in partnership with the WWF [1]. This will reduce the amount of greenhouse gas emissions which are responsible for climate change [1].

Other possibilities include:

• measurement of carbon footprint
• address carbon footprint of supply chain components
• renewable energy will reduce energy use in production processes
• reduce energy use in transportation/virtual meetings
• working from home
• reduce waste/cut down on consumption at meetings
• set targets for emissions of company
• use the cloud to decrease the amount of IT hardware needed
• support political movements to address climate change
• recycling
• carbon offsetting
• carbon trading
• sequestration.

The resource was accessible to most candidates and the majority of responses were able to identify the overall increase shown by the graph. Although many also described the obvious fluctuation of the trend a number failed to gain full credit by omitting this characteristic. Candidates also need to be reminded of the importance of quantification when describing graphical resources.

The majority of candidates were able to identify glacial melt and thermal expansion as causes of sea level change. Many answers developed explanations of the processes by which these led to sea level change with reference to overall increases in water stored in the oceans and volume changes. Some answers however were lacking in the development of how their selected ways led to sea level change and simply stated that they caused an increase in sea level. The question required causes and not just description and a more thorough analysis of its requirements would have directed answers to a more analytical approach. Some answers erroneously looked at the seasonal melting of sea ice and some tried to link sea level rise to increased evaporation and rainfall. Evaporation was credited where reference was made to shrinking inland seas, but this approach was very rare. Pleasingly a small number did refer to isostatic readjustment.

This question produced a polarity of answers. Many candidates were able to identify strategies and link them to named companies and valid institutions. Assorted strategies were outlined such as carbon offsetting, waste reduction, use of IT for meetings, use of renewable energy and recycling and these were developed to demonstrate how they could address climate change. Answers frequently referred to the reduction of carbon emissions in elements of the production cycle. Responses that took this approach scored well. Some candidates were able to identify and describe a strategy but did not develop it to explain how it could be used to address climate change and here credit was limited. A significant number of answers did not recognize what was required with reference to corporate strategies and instead gave generic responses that simply addressed methods that could be used to combat climate change or examined international treaties. Candidates must ensure that all elements of the syllabus are covered in their revision.

Briefly outline how the natural greenhouse effect operates. 

Explain how the global energy balance can be changed by solar radiation variations.

Explain how the global energy balance can be changed by global dimming due to volcanic eruptions.

Explain two reasons why sea-level change may result from global warming.

Reason 1:

Reason 2:

Longwave/outgoing radiation [1] is absorbed by greenhouse gases [1], heating up the atmosphere [1].

Solar flaring / sunspot activity / solar cycles or increase/decrease in solar activity [1] can change the amount of shortwave radiation entering the system [1].

Increased aerosols / dust / particles in the atmosphere [1] preventing the input of shortwave radiation [1].

In each case, credit a valid reason [1] and award [1] for development/exemplification that explains change in sea level.

For example:

• Thermal expansion of the oceans [1], as at higher temperatures water occupies a greater space/sea level rise [1].
• Melting of icecaps/glaciers [1] results in a global change in hydrological storage as water moves from the cryosphere to the oceans / increases the amount of water in the oceans/sea level rise [1].

Accept evaporation and drop in sea level ONLY when specifically related to inland seas.

Outline what is meant by terrestrial albedo. 

Suggest how climate change may cause spatial changes in biomes.

Suggest how climate change may cause spatial changes in animal migration patterns.

Explain two ways in which higher temperatures could increase the incidence of health hazards on people.

Way 1:

Way 2:

A measurement of the amount of sunlight reflected [1].

Development could include: reference to earth/land/sea surfaces [1] / the amount of energy reflected back as a % of incoming solar radiation (measured from 0-1) [1].

Award [1] for a valid spatial change and [1] for additional causal detail.

For example: deserts and semi deserts expand [1] as climate change reduces rainfall totals and reliability [1].

Other possibilities include:

• Some biomes may shift/move/expand/disappear to different latitudes
• Mediterranean vegetation shrinking – the present areas will become drier
• Tundra in the Northern Russia which is shrinking in lower latitudes – permafrost melts due to rising temperatures.
• Boreal forests/Taiga – trees at the southern boundary are experiencing dieback as temperatures increase
• Increase in wildfires – may shrink the area covered by a particular biome e.g. Mediterranean
• Coral bleaching – coral reef biomes are shrinking as sea temperatures increase/acidification takes place
• Mangrove biome shrinking/disappearing/changing position – temperature increase leads to melting ice which raises sea levels.

Award [1] for a valid spatial change and [1] for additional causal detail.

For example: Climate change is driving some species to migrate to new locations especially if they prefer cold climates [1] by moving to higher latitudes or higher altitudes (e.g. Atlantic Mackerel).

Other possibilities include:

• migratory birds – changing routes or patterns/extent of migration
• savanna animals – changing routes or patterns/extent of migration
• loss of sea ice can change migration routes of caribou in Canada – they avoid swimming long distances
• increase in access to green vegetation – decreases need to migrate for caribou
• migration of mosquitoes to areas that are warming – climate change has changed the environment so that it is now suitable
• fish stocks e.g. mackerel migrating poleward in search of cooler waters.

In each case, award [1] for a valid distinct way linked to higher temperatures and [1] for additional explanation/exemplification.

For example: Increased temperature in some regions increase the incidence of vector-borne diseases [1] carried by mosquitoes like dengue fever and the Zika virus [1].

Other possibilities include:

• Weather temperature extremes – heat waves causing increased mortality amongst vulnerable populations such as the older generation due to heat stroke/cardiovascular disease. Linked with mental disorders/lower birth weight. Heat waves are also linked to a number of skin conditions such as rashes/blisters.
• Changes in agriculture could impact upon food availability – nutritional deficiencies.
• Increased water temperatures caused by higher air temperature mean that waterborne bacteria and harmful algal toxins will be present in the water at different times of the year, or in places where they were not previously threats.
• Higher air temperatures can increase cases of Salmonella and other bacteria-related food poisoning because bacteria grow more rapidly in warm environments. These diseases can cause gastrointestinal distress and, in severe cases, death.
• Decrease air quality – raise the levels of ozone and other pollutants in the air that exacerbate cardiovascular and respiratory disease.
• Higher temperatures lead to increased incidence of cyclones – resulting health hazards/mortality.
• Higher temperatures lead to melting glaciers which give sea level rise which contaminates water supplies in lowland areas – leads to hypertension/miscarriage/skin diseases e.g. Bangladesh.
• Release of pathogens from melting ice – melting of permafrost release long dormant diseases e.g. anthrax in Siberia
• Dehydration from increased temperature – can lead to hypertension, cramps and mental issues.

The responses showed a good understanding of the term albedo, and the majority were able to address the terrestrial element of the phrase.

Both sub-sections of this question presented problems for the candidates. Many did not possess the body of knowledge required, especially in the context of biomes. In addition, a number strayed into temporal changes when examining migration patterns. The guide identifies the body of knowledge required in Unit 2:2 of Geographic perspectives.

In (b)i a minority commented on the expansion of deserts or changes in the location and extent of the tundra and taiga. However, the causal element of the question was not usually addressed to acquire the second mark.

Candidates were more successful in (b)ii with a basic comment on animals migrating to environments that suit their environmental requirements, but explanations were frequently superficial. The better answers usually were on fish migrations and ocean warming.

Answers to this question were more secure and candidates generally scored well. Many candidates referred to the link between higher temperatures and the distribution of mosquitos, the increased incidence of heatwaves and changing food production. Some commented on extreme weather events and rising sea level, with varying success in their linkage to higher temperatures. A substantial number however did not provide comment on the resultant health hazard. For example, candidates would comment on the spread of mosquitos but not outline the link to malaria as a health hazard.

Identify one region showing an extensive positive anomaly of +12 °C.

Identify one region showing an extensive negative anomaly of −12 °C.

Outline how extreme warming can affect the albedo of a region.

Outline how extreme warming can affect the operation of a feedback loop.

Explain two ways in which climate change impacts upon ocean transport routes.

Way 1:

Way 2:

South/South East Greenland

central/eastern/N/NE USA

central North America

central Asia

E/NE Australia

southern Africa

western/NW Australia

western USA

SW Asia

In each case, award [1] for a valid comment on effects of extreme warming and [1] for the impact on albedo.

Valid effects may include:

• Decrease in the amount of ice, decrease in albedo less energy reflected.
• Increases amount of cloud through increased evaporation, increases albedo.
• Increased heat causes wildfires which destroy vegetation, increases albedo.
• Expansion of deserts due to water loss decreases vegetation, increases albedo.

For example: Extreme warming is going to melt ice in the polar regions [1] and therefore the surface will reflect less solar radiation and decrease albedo [1].
OR
Extreme warming may increase evaporation in tropical areas [1], which can reduce vegetation cover and increase albedo [1].

In each case, award [1] for the valid identification and description of a loop and [1] for development linked to impact.

Valid loops may include:

Positive loops

• Release of methane from frozen ground, causes increase in greenhouse gases which gives more warming.
• Warming of atmosphere leads to more evaporation, causes more water vapour which traps heat and amplifies initial warming.
• Warming melts ice which decreases albedo so absorbed heat warms atmosphere which melts more ice.
• Warming gives conditions perfect for wildfires, causes release of more GHG/shrink forests as a carbon sink.
• Warming causes the oceans to increase in temperature and become less efficient as a carbon sink, this increases the CO₂ in the atmosphere which further increases warming.

Negative loops

• Increase in temperature increases the amount of cloud cover, decrease incoming solar radiation and decrease warming.

For example: Melting of frozen ground releases methane/greenhouse gas [1] so there is more warming and more melting [1].

In each case, allow [1] for a valid way and [1] for development/exemplification of impacts on ocean transport routes.

Valid possibilities include:

• Warming may decrease the amount of sea ice and so ice-bound ports may be more accessible all year round.
• Warming may increase the occurrence of natural hazards, such as hurricanes/storms, these would make some routes more dangerous and hazardous to navigation.
• Increased natural hazards (storms and storm surges) may damage infrastructure, interrupt operations at terminals.
• Climate change may result in sea level rise which leads to more frequent flooding of port facilities.
• Existing routes may no longer be safe due to icebergs/increased sedimentation due to worsening coastal erosion, re-routing becomes more common.

For example: New sea routes opening up as sea ice melts [1] and allows passage through areas previously ice bound for large parts of the year [1].

The main issue with both (i) and (ii) was the recognition of what constituted a region rather than the ability to interpret the patterns shown on the world map. The geography guide outlines the scales with which candidates should be familiar and examiners were given guidance to cover major interpretations of regional; an area within a country or an area that crosses international boundaries. Many answers were given at the national scale which the resource did not identify.

The main issue with both (i) and (ii) was the recognition of what constituted a region rather than the ability to interpret the patterns shown on the world map. The geography guide outlines the scales with which candidates should be familiar and examiners were given guidance to cover major interpretations of regional; an area within a country or an area that crosses international boundaries. Many answers were given at the national scale which the resource did not identify.

Virtually all answers referred to the impact of extreme warming in Arctic environments and were generally well done. The loss of ice and snow due to warming was understood by the majority and most went on to outline how this caused a decrease in the albedo. In a minority of cases the second element of the answer was omitted, and the sole focus was a description of changes in the cryosphere. There were some instances where candidates were confused and suggested that warming would increase albedo, but these were not significant in number.

This question proved to be more of a challenge but, as with 2(b)(i) many candidates were well prepared and gave a developed outline of the operation of a feedback loop. The most popular ways of answering involved a development of the albedo theme or the melting of permafrost and the release of methane. Encouragingly a significant number addressed negative loops and the self-regulatory systems that slow down the warming trend. Where marks were lost was usually in the outlining of the link between the stimulating factor and the increasing or slowing of the trend.

This question was accessible to most candidates with most of the successful answers making reference to a decrease in the amount of sea ice and the increase in extreme weather conditions, usually with reference to hurricanes/storms. The better answers were able to link these with observed impacts on transport routes such as the opening up of new routes in the Arctic Ocean. Some answers lacked precision and referred to the melting of ice in polar regions conflating sea ice and land ice and some drifted into possible impact in the future when the question was directed to present impacts. As a result some candidates identified sea level change as an element of climate change but linked this with the opening up of new routes rather than the more frequent flooding of port facilities.

Describe the trends shown in the slum populations of Lesotho between 2005 and 2014.

Suggest two reasons why progress towards access to safe water has been slow in some regions.

Reason 1:

Reason 2:

Explain one economic advantage and one environmental advantage of the circular economy.

Economic advantage:

Environmental advantage:

Award [1] for each of the following trends.

• overall increase / increase 2005-2009
• 2009-14 decrease.

Quantification required for allocation of [2].

In each case, award [1] for a valid reason for slow progress and [1] for further development/exemplification.

For example: In Madagascar there has been a lack of investment in water provision [1] which has meant that the development of infrastructure such as water points is missing [1] for a large proportion of the rural population.

Other possibilities include:

• High population growth rates in developing countries means that there is a greater demand for water.
• Lack of hygienic wastewater disposal leads to polluted groundwater supplies.
• Open defecation often pollutes water courses.
• Lack of investment in rural areas means there is an inequality between rural and urban supply of safe water.
• Political decisions can mean money is given to other areas of development – leads to lack of investment in water supply such as wells.
• Conflict between groups may lead to the destruction of infrastructure or a focus of spending on armaments.
• Climate change may lead to prolonged drought which may cause water supplies to dry up.
• Sea level rise in coastal areas – leads to salinization of supply making it undrinkable.
• Natural disasters such as earthquakes or floods may destroy infrastructure such as pipelines.
• Agricultural extraction may lead to a lack of water for human consumption / including the exporting of virtual water.
• Lack of funding from HICs – e.g. UK cut funding for clean water.
• Dams built on rivers that cross two or more countries – water held upstream.
• Remote areas – difficulty/financial problems of construction of infrastructure.

In each case, award [1] for identification of a valid advantage and [1] for further development/exemplification.

For example: The circular economy results in employment growth [1] – jobs are created through more labour-intensive activities/logistics/new innovative industries [1].

Economic advantages:

• economic growth – increased revenue from circular activities
• substantial resource savings – no need to extract raw materials
• incentives for innovation – collaboration between, manufacturing, design and recyclers
• more durable products save money in the long term
• improving the security of supply of raw materials
• increases disposable income as encourages buying used items or leasing/renting which is cheaper
• less dependence on imports
• company reputation is enhanced by being part of the circular economy – attracts customers
• reducing healthcare costs – fewer harmful emissions into air and water
• reduces clean-up costs – discarded plastics in rivers and oceans.

Environmental advantages:

• fewer emissions – reduced consumption of fossil fuels
• land productivity and soil health – nutrients returned to soil/reduction in use of artificial fertilizers
• less damage to ecosystems – fewer resources needed so land not used for mining/intensive agriculture, water bodies not impacted by dumping of toxins
• reduces climate change – less energy used for production/supply lines leads to fewer emissions.
• reduces use of non-renewable resources – less environmental damage from oil and mineral extraction
• aims for zero waste – less material goes to landfill.

Most candidates were able to identify the two trends shown on the graph, increase from 2005-09 and decrease from 2009-14. Although the majority gained full marks a number failed to use quantification and lost the second mark.

Candidates seemed confident with the topic of water security and could identify reasons why progress towards safe water was slow in some regions. Answers were usually focused on financial, political and social explanations with lack of investment, conflict and disposal of domestic waste the prevailing reasons. There were however some good answers that recognized the influence of the water-food-energy nexus and others that developed causes related to climate change. Some candidates were confused by the focus on progress and examined the absolute lack of water as a reason which was not the core of the question.

The concept of the circular economy was understood by the majority of candidates, but many found difficulty in applying it to the two elements of the question. Comments on the economic advantages often focused on raw materials but having recognized the savings that would be made many answers failed to develop this effectively. A recurrent feature of answers was that they could identify the advantage, but development seemed to be more difficult. Responses to environmental advantages generally fared better with candidates recognizing that less waste was produced and linking this with improvements to habits, terrain and location.

“Responding to climate change is more important than working towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

Refer to Paper 2 section C markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Reponses may tackle the question on a national, regional or global scale and may also consider the time frame needed to achieve change. An understanding of climate change and the UN SDGs should be evident in the response. Responses may have valid different perspectives on what constitutes “important”.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• The potential consequences of climate change such as sea level change, extreme weather, changes to agriculture, spatial changes in biomes, changing hydrology’s [Unit 2:2]
• The impacts of climate change on people and places such as health hazards and migration [Unit 2:2]
• The possibilities to response to climate change
• Explanation of the purpose of the SDGs with a focus on some of the 17 goals such as gender equity, reducing hunger, and poverty. This may include an outline of how the SDGs operate to address issues of resource management [Unit 3:3]
• Explanation of the interaction between SDGs and climate change.

Responses may link the impacts of climate change on the potential outcome of some of the 17 goals. Alternatively, a response could see both as interlinked and show how both complement one another.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) which examines the statement in a way that shows understanding of the relative importance of climate change and SDGs. Another approach may comment on how the relative importance may vary between places. Some answers may examine the respective processes and possibilities of managing climate change and SDGs at different spatial and temporal scales.

For 5–6 marks
Expect some outline of climate change issues and/or the SDGs. The response is partial, narrow or lacks supporting evidence.

For 7–8 marks
Expect a well-structured account which includes:

• either a well-evidenced synthesis which links together several well-evidenced resource stewardship themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks
Expect both traits.

Answers to this question were in the minority. Many candidates answered by giving factual information about climate change and attempted to address the question by examining the severity of its consequences. The relative importance of the impacts of climate change were addressed by looking at sea level rise, drought and extreme weather, sometimes with reference to countries at different levels of economic development. The impacts of climate change were frequently based on migration, but the better responses examined social and economic ramifications. Often this formed the majority of the essay with little attention paid to the SDGs. When development goals were discussed it was often as a developed list of their character and relative importance. This approach only partially addressed the question as there was little discussion of which element of the question was most important. There were some very good responses that realized that the two elements of the question were related and that by responding to one the other was addressed. These answers were usually structured around the SDGs and related issues such as poverty, hunger, health and inequality to aspects of climate change.

Describe the regional distribution of high total greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.

Explain two reasons why increased trade by emerging economies has led to increased greenhouse gas emissions.

Reason 1:

Reason 2:

Explain how carbon offset schemes and carbon trading might lead to a global reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

Award [1] for each valid statement, up to a maximum of [2].

Possibilities include:

• concentration in East Asia/South East Asia/South Asia
• Western Europe/Northern Europe
• Central/Eastern USA
• almost entirely northern hemisphere.

Identification of a valid reason [1] and [1] for further development/exemplification of how it has led to an increase in GHG emissions.

Possibilities must be linked to increased trade and could include:

• Increased export of manufactured goods – increased greenhouse gas emissions from factories/industry producing these.
• TNCs locating manufacturing plants in emerging economies – local regulations may be more lax in terms of emissions.
• Increased trade results in increased greenhouse gas emissions from container shipping/aircraft/road transport of goods.
• Trade in emerging economies may be instrumental in improving standard of living – per capita greenhouse gas emissions increase due to increased consumption (meat, fossil fuels)
• Reliance of emerging economies on fossil fuels.

Award [1] for explaining carbon offsetting and [1] for how it could reduce global emissions.

AND

Award [1] for explaining carbon trading and [1] for how it could reduce global emissions.

Example: Carbon offset schemes are designed to reduce or offset carbon emissions by funding activities and projects [1] such as tree planting or solar power which reduce emissions elsewhere [1].

Example: Carbon trading attempts to create a market in which emission permits issues by governments can be traded [1]. Companies that exceed their targets have to buy from those that do not – this market system attempts to limit emissions [1].

Award a maximum of [2] for a description of carbon emissions offsetting and carbon trading that does not explain how global greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced over time by this approach.

Many candidates were able to describe the regional distribution of the high total greenhouse gas emissions. Those that did not gain full credit often failed to be specific citing "Europe" instead of western or central Europe or "North America" instead of eastern USA. Others failed to address the regional element of the question and gave a series of countries, especially in relation to Asia. Some went beyond the "high" category and described the whole map, which sometimes impacted on their time management.

There were some good answers to this question with reference being made to greenhouse gases resulting from transport and increased production. Many candidates were able to identify a reason and then explain why it resulted in increased greenhouse gas emissions, for example transport requirements leading to increased use of fossil fuels. Some candidates did make reference to the way in which trade has increased the standard of living in emerging economies and how that has resulted in activities that involve greenhouse gas emissions. There were situations where answers did not obtain full credit especially where reasons were identified but development was not related to the increase in greenhouse gas emissions.

Both carbon offsetting and trading are clearly identified in the Geography guide and so it was disappointing that examiners reported that knowledge of their operation was inconsistent. As a result, the marks for this question were not high. If knowledge of mitigation strategies is not secure, then explanation of their operation is going to be limited.